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2024年9月6日 星期五

科學家發現造成陸地抬升的隱形力量

 原文網址:https://www.southampton.ac.uk/news/2024/08/scientists-uncover-hidden-forces-causing-continents-to-rise.page

南安普敦大學的科學家解開了關於板塊運動的一大謎題:為什麼某些陸地的「穩定」部分可以逐漸抬升成地球最雄偉的地形特徵?又是透過什麼樣的作用?

從Sentinel Hub Earth Observation Browser下載非洲南部大斷崖的衛星影像。該影像取自哨兵2號(Sentinel-2)的L1C資料庫。圖片來源: Tom Gernon教授,南安普敦大學。

2023年12月7日 星期四

地景動態決定了地球生物多樣性的演變過程

 原文網址:https://www.sydney.edu.au/news-opinion/news/2023/11/30/landscape-dynamics-determine-evolution-biodiversity-nature-salles.html

今日發表在《自然》(Nature)的新研究顯示從地質時間尺度來看,河川、高山、海洋與沉積物養分的移動過程,是地球生物多樣性演變的主要動力來源。

過去5億4千萬年沉積物進到海洋的通量(粉紅線)vs海洋動物多樣性(黑線)。兩者之間有顯著的相關性(線上標註的為滅絕事件)。圖片來源:《自然》

2021年7月1日 星期四

科學家對於流動的沙子、潛移的土壤,以及地貌的演育過程有了全新瞭解

 原文網址:https://penntoday.upenn.edu/news/shifting-sands-creeping-soils-and-new-understanding-landscape-evolution

by Erica K. Brockmeier

發表在《自然通訊》(Nature Communication)的新研究發現一堆沙子即使是在未受擾動的情形下仍會不停移動。透過極為敏銳的干涉光所得到的數據,賓州大學與范德堡大學的研究人員得出的結論挑戰了地質學與物理學之中,關於土壤以及其他種類的無序材料會有什麼行為的現有理論。

2020年10月20日 星期二

達爾文對於珊瑚環礁如何形成的理論有致命的缺陷

 原文網址:http://news.rice.edu/2020/10/12/study-darwins-theory-about-coral-reef-atolls-is-fatally-flawed-2/

達爾文對於珊瑚環礁如何形成的理論有致命的缺陷

科學家彙整了環礁是由海平面高度的週期變化所形成的證據

By Jade Boyd

身為海洋地質學家與海洋學家的André Droxler研究珊瑚礁已經超過了40年。他知道達爾文提出的環礁形成理論並不正確,不過他也理解為什麼達爾文的模型可以歷久不衰,仍然存在於教科書、大學講堂、自然科學博物館以及維基百科的條目當中。

比較現在Google地球的衛星影像(右)和1842年查爾斯.達爾文繪製的地圖(左),這些地方分別為:所羅門群島的瓦尼科羅群礁(上)、密克羅尼西亞的楚克堡礁(中)、印度洋查戈斯群島的佩魯斯巴紐斯環礁(下)。圖片來源:A. Droxler

2020年8月7日 星期五

古代的火星上頭並沒有流動的河水,而是被冰原覆蓋

 原文網址:https://news.ubc.ca/2020/08/03/early-mars-was-covered-in-ice-sheets-not-flowing-rivers/

古代的火星上頭並沒有流動的河水,而是被冰原覆蓋

英屬哥倫比亞大學發表在《自然―地球科學》的新研究指出刻劃在火星表面的谷地網絡大多數是由冰河底下的融水雕刻而成,而非像過往認為的是由自由流動的河水切割出來的。現今主流的「溫暖潮濕的古代火星」假說推測這顆紅色行星表面曾有河流、降雨以及海洋,但這項發現無疑對此假說潑了一大盆冷水。

這張圖片是德文島上的冰帽。英屬哥倫比亞大學的研究人員認為早期的火星地貌可能就像這樣。圖片來源:Anna Grau Galofre.

2020年6月20日 星期六

控制山脈可以長到多高的因素是什麼?

原文網址:https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/media-and-communication/news/details/article/which-factors-control-the-height-of-mountains/

控制山脈可以長到多高的因素是什麼?

By Josef Zens

是什麼力量與機制決定了山脈的高度?德國明斯特和波茨坦的研究人員發現了的最新答案相當驚人:決定山岳高度上限的因素不是岩石受到的侵蝕與風化作用,而是在地殼當中的作用力如何達到平衡。對於地球科學界來說這是全新且重要的基礎發現。研究論文發表於學術期刊《自然》(Nature)。

從太空中看到的安地斯山脈。安地斯山就和地球其他山脈一樣,高度皆是由構造作用力所決定。圖片來源:NASA; Astronaut photograph ISS059-E-157

地球上最高的幾座山脈,像是喜馬拉雅山和安地斯山皆矗立於聚合型板塊邊界。在這類板塊邊界兩座板塊會朝彼此移動,其中一方會被拉到另一方之下而進到地函內部。這種隱沒作用持續進行時會讓板塊交界一再發生強烈地震,並在歷經數百萬年之後於大陸邊緣逐漸把山脈推擠出來。

山脈的高度主要是由地球內部的構造作用決定,還是由刻劃地表的侵蝕作用決定?這是地球科學當中爭議許久的問題。

德國地質科學研究中心的Armin Dielforder領導的研究團隊最近證明河流與冰河造成的侵蝕作用對於山脈的高度沒有顯著影響。分析不同板塊邊界的強度並計算作用在板塊交界的各個力量之後,他和德國地質科學研究中心與明斯特大學的科學家解決了這項歷時已久的爭議。

研究人員得出這項驚人結論的方法是計算作用在地球不同板塊邊界的力量。他們用的數據可以提供板塊邊界強度方面的資訊。這些數據的來源像是測量地表下方的熱能如何流動。而聚合型板塊邊界的熱流又受到大陸板塊邊界的摩擦能量所影響。

我們可以運用桌巾來想像山脈如何形成。如果你把雙手放在桌巾下面然後往彼此靠攏,桌巾就會產生褶皺,但同時也會稍微往外滑過你的手背。這些隆起的褶皺就像是安地斯山脈,而桌巾往外滑過手背的作用則形同於地底的摩擦力。此外,依據岩石的特型不同也會有張力累積在地底深處,當它們釋放出來的時候就會造成大地震,在隱沒帶尤其容易發生。

研究人員從文獻中蒐集世界各地不同高度山脈之下(喜馬拉雅山、安地斯山、蘇門答臘、日本)和摩擦力有關的數據,並且計算其造成的應力以及對應到各山脈的抬升力道有多強。他們透過這種方法證明出在活躍的山脈下方,作用在板塊邊界的力量會和山脈本身重量與高度造成的力量達到平衡。

他們研究的山脈雖然位處不同的氣候帶,因此侵蝕速率也差異甚大,但每座山脈皆達到了上述的力平衡。這項結果代表山脈可以隨著地表作用而做出反應,並在侵蝕快速的時候隨之成長,藉此來維持山脈的高度與力平衡。這項在基礎層面的新發現開啟了許多機會,來讓我們更加詳細的研究山脈的長期發育與成長過程。

 

Which factors control the height of mountains?

Which forces and mechanisms determine the height of mountains? A group of researchers from Münster and Potsdam has now found a surprising answer: It is not erosion and weathering of rocks that determine the upper limit of mountain massifs, but rather an equilibrium of forces in the Earth's crust. This is a fundamentally new and important finding for the earth sciences. The researchers report on it in the scientific journal Nature.

The highest mountain ranges on Earth – such as the Himalayas or the Andes – arise along convergent plate boundaries. At such plate boundaries two tectonic plates move toward each other, and one of the plates is forced beneath the other into the Earth's mantle. During this process of subduction, strong earthquakes repeatedly occur on the plate interface, and over millions of years mountain ranges are built at the edges of the continents.

Whether the height of mountain ranges is mainly determined by tectonic processes in the Earth's interior or by erosional processes sculpturing the Earth's surface has long been debated in geosciences.

A new study led by Armin Dielforder of GFZ German Research Centre for Geoscience now shows that erosion by rivers and glaciers has no significant influence on the height of mountain ranges. Together with scientists from the GFZ and the University of Münster (Germany), he resolved the longstanding debate by analysing the strength of various plate boundaries and calculating the forces acting along the plate interfaces.

The researchers arrived at this surprising result by calculating the forces along different plate boundaries on the Earth. They used data that provide information about the strength of plate boundaries. These data are derived, for example, from heat flow measurements in the subsurface. The heat flow at convergent plate boundaries is in turn influenced by the frictional energy at the interfaces of the continental plates.

One can imagine the formation of mountains using a tablecloth. If you place both hands under the cloth on the table top and push it, the cloth folds and at the same time it slides a little over the back of your hands. The emerging folds would correspond, for instance, to the Andes, the sliding over the back of the hands to the friction in the underground. Depending on the characteristics of the rock, tensions also build up in the deep underground which are discharged in severe earthquakes, especially in subduction zones.

The researchers collected worldwide data from the literature on friction in the subsurface of mountain ranges of different heights (Himalayas, Andes, Sumatra, Japan) and calculated the resulting stress and thus the forces that lead to the uplift of the respective mountains. In this way they showed that in active mountains the force on the plate boundary and the forces resulting from the weight and height of the mountains are in balance.

Such a balance of forces exists in all the mountain ranges studied, although they are located in different climatic zones with widely varying erosion rates. This result shows that mountain ranges are able to react to processes on the Earth's surface and to grow with rapid erosion in such a way that the balance of forces and the height of the mountain range are maintained. This fundamentally new finding opens up numerous opportunities to study the long-term development and growth of mountains in greater detail.

原始文獻:Armin Dielforder, Ralf Hetzel, Onno Oncken. Megathrust shear force controls mountain height at convergent plate margins. Nature, 2020; 582 (7811): 225 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2340-7

引用自:GFZ GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam, Helmholtz Centre. "What control the height of mountains? “


2019年11月16日 星期六

科學家發現「永恆之河」尼羅河比過去認為的更加古


科學家發現「永恆之河」尼羅河比過去認為的更加古老
古埃及人視尼羅河為所有生命的源頭。尼羅河千百萬年來穩定地向北流動,滋養出非洲東北肥沃的河谷,也因此決定了人類文明的軌跡。
流過埃及開羅的尼羅河。德州大學的科學家最近發現尼羅河的年齡是過去認為的六倍左右。圖片來源:Nina R.

2019年10月1日 星期二

為什麼山會長得這麼高?


為什麼山會長得這麼高?
研究人員分析世界各地的山脈之後,證實一項關於侵蝕和山脈高度關係的理論並非全然正確
By Danielle Torrent Tucker
地球上的高山與谷地千百萬年來不停變化,形成的層巒疊嶂交織成我們今日所見的壯麗地景。山脈的形成原因通常是地表下方有壓力往上推擠,但影響它們最終能長到多高的因素卻有很多,像是山峰之間的侵蝕作用,也就是河道的形成過程。
一條河川流過美國懷俄明州黃石公園的群山之間。新研究測試了一項三十年來有關侵蝕作用與山脈高度的理論。圖片來源:Seth Cottle/Unsplash

2019年9月18日 星期三

新研究在全世界的河川發現氣候留下的記號


新研究在全世界的河川發現氣候留下的記號
英國布里斯托大學的科學家主持並發表在期刊《自然》(Nature)的新研究質疑了現有理論――他們發現氣候在全世界的河川都留下了鮮明的記號。
文章中發現不同氣候帶的河川縱剖面具有不同的特性。濕潤(左下)和半乾燥(右下)的河川顯示氣候造成他們的流量有所差異。圖片來源:布里斯托大學
地球科學家數十年來一直在試著找出氣候在河川形成過程中的影響,但目前為止還沒有得到系統性的證據。
如果你從河川的源頭往河口前進,路途中的海拔高度會一路降低。在某些河川中,這條路徑在高處時會下降得非常快,到了低處則變得相當平坦,結果便是形成一條凹口向上的高度剖面(又稱縱剖面),就像是從一個碗的碗口畫到碗底得到的形狀。相較來說,直線形的縱剖面就像一道斜坡,從源頭走到河口途中不管哪個高度的下降幅度都一樣。
陳宣安等人進行的新研究顯示濕潤地區的河川傾向形成凹口向上的縱剖面,而越乾燥的地區河川縱剖面則會越來越直。
布里斯托大學地理科學院的陳宣安是主要作者,他說:「河川縱剖面是經過數千年到數百萬年逐漸形成的,因此它可以訴說當地氣候歷史的宏觀故事。我們推測氣候會影響河川縱剖面,因為氣候決定了河川中有多少水在流,以及水流沿著河床推動沉積物的相關力度有多強。」
在此之前科學家缺乏一個有系統的大型資料庫涵蓋全世界各個氣候帶的河川,使他們無法全面探討氣候跟河川形狀之間的關係。研究團隊運用NASA太空梭蒐集到的數據,以及共同作者倫敦瑪麗王后大學的Stuart Grieve博士開發出的專門軟體,發展出新型且可以免費使用的河川縱剖面資料庫,其中涵蓋了超過33萬條世界各地的河川。
這篇研究首度證明全世界不同氣候帶的河川縱剖面有明顯差異,原因為乾燥在河川流量上呈現出來的影響。
濕潤地區的河川一般來說整年都有水在流動,因此可以持續搬運沉積物,並把河川縱剖面整體侵蝕成凹口向上的形狀。
隨著氣候逐漸變乾(從半乾燥、乾燥到超乾燥),一年中只有下雨時河川會流動幾次,造成沉積物很少受到搬運。
此外,乾燥地區的河川也較容易經歷短期而強烈的暴雨,這種降雨類型不會讓整條河川都有水在流動。
作者在論文中利用數值模型模擬河川縱剖面的演化歷程如何受到流量特性影響,因而解釋了氣候、流量和縱剖面形狀彼此之間的關聯。
作者指出不論河川縱剖面是否還有其他可能的控制條件,流量特性對最終形成的剖面形狀具有最主要的影響。他們證明資料庫中不同氣候帶的剖面形狀差異,可以用氣候對流量造成的不同特性來解釋。
布里斯托大學地理科學院的Katerina Michaelides博士主持了這項研究,她說:「數十年來教科書上的傳統理論,都將河川縱剖面描繪成會往凹口向上的形狀演化。在前人發表的研究中,濕潤地區的河川遠比乾燥地區的河川更常出現並受到深入探討,造成現有理論偏向從濕潤地區河川得到的觀察結果。」
「我們的研究證實世界上很多河川的剖面形狀並非是凹口向上,而直線形的剖面在乾燥環境中較為常見。」
「我認為乾燥地區的河川一直以來都沒有被好好研究並受到忽視,特別是考慮到乾旱地區其實占了全球陸地面積的40%。它們的流量特徵讓我們能從獨一無二的角度探討氣候對地表地形的影響。」

New research identifies a climate signature in rivers globally
A new study, led by scientists from the University of Bristol and published in the journal Nature, discovers a clear climatic signature on rivers globally that challenges existing theories.
For decades geoscientists have been trying to detect the influence of climate on the formation of rivers, but up to now there has been no systematic evidence.
If you walk from a river’s source to its mouth, you walk a path that descends in elevation. In some rivers, this path will descend steeply out of the uplands, and then flatten out in the lowlands. This results in an elevational profile (which we call the long profile) that has a concave up shape, similar to the shape of the inside of a bowl as you trace it from the inside rim to the bottom. In contrast, a straight long profile descends evenly in elevation, like a ramp, along the path as you walk from the source to the mouth.
The new research by Chen et al. shows that while river long profiles tend to be concave up in humid regions, they become progressively straighter in drier regions.
Lead author Shiuan-An Chen from the University of Bristol’s School of Geographical Sciences, said: “The long profile is formed gradually over tens of thousands to millions of years, so it tells a bigger story about the climate history of region. We would expect climate to affect the river long profile because it controls how much water flows in rivers and the associated force of water to move sediment along the riverbed.”
Up until now scientists have lacked a large, systematic dataset of rivers that spans the range of climate zones on Earth, enabling full exploration of the links between climate and river form. The research team produced a new, freely available, database of river long profiles, generated from data originally collected by NASA’s space shuttle. They used specialist software developed by co-author Dr Stuart Grieve at Queen Mary University London to develop a new long profile database that includes over 330,000 rivers across the globe.
The study shows for the first time at the global scale that there are distinct differences in river long profile shapes across climate zones, and that the reason behind these differences lies in the expression of aridity in streamflow in rivers.
In humid regions, rivers tend to have flow in them all year round which continually moves sediment and erodes the overall profile into a concave up shape.
As the climate becomes progressively arid (from semi-arid, to arid, to hyper-arid), rivers only flow a few times per year when it rains, moving sediment infrequently.
Additionally, arid rivers tend to experience brief, intense rainstorms, which do not create flow over the entire river length. 
These links between climate, streamflow and long profile shape are explained in the paper using a numerical model which simulates the evolution of river profiles over time in response to streamflow characteristics.
The authors show that regardless of all other potential controls on river profiles, streamflow characteristics have a dominant effect on the final profile shape. They demonstrate that the differences in the climatic expression of streamflow explain the variations in profile shape across climatic regions in their database.
Dr Katerina Michaelides, also from Bristol’s School of Geographical Sciences, who led the research added: “Traditional theory included in textbooks for decades describes that river long profiles evolve to be concave up. Existing theories are biased towards observations made in humid rivers, which are far better studied and more represented in published research than dryland rivers.
“Our study shows that many river profiles around the world are not concave up and that straighter profiles tend to be more common in arid environments.”
“I think dryland rivers have been understudied and under-appreciated, especially given that drylands cover ~40% of the global land surface. Their streamflow expression gives unique insights into the climatic influence on land surface topography.”
原始論文:S-A. Chen, K. Michaelides, S. Grieve and M.B. Singer. Aridity is expressed in river topography globally'. Nature, 2019 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1558-8
引用自:University of Bristol. "Climate signature identified in rivers globally."